Free articles on equine infectious disease and Microbiology in EVJ Special Collection

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The March 2026 issue of Equine Veterinary Journal (EVJ) highlights major advances in equine infectious disease and microbiology, with a Special Collection dedicated to the equine microbiome. The issue, which is free to access for 12 weeks, features 30 research papers spanning a wide range of diseases, body systems, and pathogens. Many of the studies involve international collaboration, reflecting the global importance of managing infectious diseases in horses.

Equine infectious disease remains a key research focus for veterinarians and scientists because of its impact on horse health, welfare, and the equine industry. The special issue identifies three major themes: the importance of national disease surveillance programmes, the need for accurate and definitive diagnoses, and the value of comparing diseases across different animal species to better understand how pathogens behave.

Several studies focus on improvements in diagnostic techniques, particularly for equine fever, equine influenza, and gastrointestinal parasites. These advances aim to support faster detection of disease and enable earlier implementation of biosecurity measures, which can help reduce transmission between horses.

Research into gastrointestinal diseases also features prominently. Studies explore the use of metabolic profiling to detect equine proliferative disease earlier in foals, investigate possible causes of colitis, and emphasise the importance of additional diagnostic testing for chronic hepatitis and liver failure in cases linked to hepacivirus infection. Together, these findings may support earlier intervention and improved disease management.

Antimicrobial resistance is another significant area of concern. One survey found that nearly 40% of hospitalised horses received at least one antimicrobial treatment. Research linked to colic surgery suggests that using antimicrobials for more than 24 hours after surgery is unnecessary for preventing complications, highlighting opportunities to reduce antibiotic use and slow the development of antimicrobial resistance.

Several papers examine diseases affecting multiple body systems. For example, updated guidance on equine botulism emphasises its importance as a differential diagnosis when horses show neurological signs. Other studies investigate multisystem diseases by comparing similar infections in other species, helping researchers better understand how diseases develop and present in horses.

Blood-related infectious diseases are also discussed. Two systematic reviews examine equine trypanosomiasis, focusing on its prevalence, management, and control strategies. Another study introduces a new diagnostic tool for detecting Theileria haneyi, a parasite associated with equine piroplasmosis, and reports the first evidence of its presence in China.

Regionally important diseases are highlighted through research on Hendra virus, which uses government and field data to study how domestic horses may act as bridging hosts for zoonotic pathogens. Another study shows that horses infected with African Horse Sickness virus can develop severe blood clotting disorders that cause significant bleeding. Research also suggests that equine encephalosis virus should be considered when diagnosing African Horse Sickness in regions where both diseases occur.

The issue also examines reproductive health, with one study linking Escherichia coli infection to reduced fertility in Thoroughbred broodmares. Another uses multi-omics technology to study nocardioform placentitis, proposing that the condition be renamed mucoid placentitis due to the variety of bacteria involved.

Respiratory disease research forms a major section, including several studies on strangles. Findings emphasise the importance of screening, quarantine, monitoring, and disease reporting to improve prevention. Additional studies investigate respiratory disease caused by Rhodococcus equi, equine influenza vaccination strategies, and the use of air sampling in stables as a non-invasive surveillance method for equine herpesvirus.

Other research explores infectious skin diseases and rare ulcerative conditions, demonstrating the importance of obtaining accurate diagnoses and comparing disease patterns across species when treatment data in horses is limited.

The Special Focus section also includes a dedicated collection on the equine microbiome, updating earlier research published in 2019. This collection highlights rapid progress in understanding the complex communities of microorganisms that influence equine health.

Overall, the research presented in this EVJ issue aims to improve disease detection, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. These advances are expected to strengthen equine welfare globally while supporting the livelihoods of communities that depend on horses for work and transport.

The Special Focus Issue is available here:

 https://beva.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/toc/20423306/2026/58/2

Identifying pain in horses faces

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Research led by scientists at Anglia Ruskin University, including its specialist land-based
campus ARU Writtle, has provided new insight into how well humans can recognise pain in horses. The study, published in the academic journal Anthrozoös, highlights important welfare implications and helps explain why recognising equine discomfort can be challenging, particularly for people new to working with horses.

Horses are widely used by humans for sport, leisure, and work. Because they are prey animals, horses have evolved to mask signs of pain or weakness to avoid attracting predators. While this survival strategy helps them in the wild, it can make it harder for humans to detect when a horse is suffering, which may delay treatment and negatively affect welfare.

The research team, which also included collaborators from Bournemouth University and University of São Paulo, investigated how accurately people can recognise pain by studying facial expressions. A total of 100 participants were recruited, including 30 individuals with experience caring for horses and 70 with little or no horse-care experience. Participants were shown 60 photographs: 30 of human faces and 30 of horse faces. They were asked to rate them for signs of pain, emotional intensity (arousal), and whether the expression appeared positive or negative (valence). To provide a benchmark for accuracy, 10 equine behaviour professionals also evaluated the horse images.

The results showed that people were generally better at recognising pain in human faces than in horse faces. However, participants with horse-care experience were significantly more accurate at identifying pain in horses compared to those without experience. The study also found that the number of years spent working with horses improved accuracy, suggesting that recognising equine facial expressions is a skill that develops through observation and practice.

Experienced participants were more likely to recognise subtle indicators of pain, such as changes in ear position, the angle of the eyes, and increased muscle tension around the face. These indicators form part of recognised equine pain assessment methods and are essential for early identification of discomfort.

The research also explored how human psychological traits affect the ability to recognise pain. Participants completed assessments measuring empathy and social anxiety. Interestingly, empathy levels did not appear to influence pain recognition accuracy for either humans or horses. However, social anxiety produced more complex results. People with higher social anxiety were better at recognising pain in human faces but not in horse faces. In fact, these individuals tended to overestimate pain in horses, suggesting that human emotional processing may sometimes interfere with interpreting equine body language.

According to lead researcher Nicola J. Gregory, the study provides the first scientific evidence that humans often struggle to identify pain in horses, but experience significantly improves this ability. Meanwhile, equine behaviour specialist Rosa Verwijs emphasised that horses’ natural tendency to hide pain means problems may only become noticeable when behaviour escalates, which can increase risks to both horse welfare and human safety.

Overall, the findings highlight the importance of education and practical training for anyone working with horses. Improving knowledge of equine facial expressions and behavioural indicators of pain could help owners and professionals identify problems earlier, seek veterinary treatment more quickly, and ultimately improve the welfare of horses in human care.

 

For more detail, see:

Gregory, N. J., Trimmer, M., Dempsey, T., Verwijs, R., Lencioni, G. C., & Moseley, R. L. (2026).

Reading Pain in Horse and Human Faces: The Influence of Horse Experience, Social Anxiety, and Empathy. Anthrozoös, (2026) 39(1), 161–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2025.2551433

Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (PPID) and the potential role of β-endorphin in diagnosis

Pituitary Pars Intermedia Dysfunction (PPID), commonly known as equine Cushing’s disease, is a common endocrine disorder affecting older horses. The condition is associated with abnormal activity of specialised cells called melanotropes, which are located in the pars intermedia region of the pituitary gland. These cells normally produce several hormones derived from a precursor molecule known as pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). In horses affected by PPID, melanotropes become overactive, leading to excessive production of several hormones that contribute to the clinical signs observed in the disease.

One of the most important hormones produced by melanotropes is adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). This hormone stimulates cortisol release from the adrenal glands and is widely used as a diagnostic marker for PPID. Elevated ACTH concentrations in blood samples often support a diagnosis of the disease. However, ACTH may not provide a complete understanding of PPID, as melanotropes also produce other biologically active substances that may influence disease development and clinical signs.

These additional substances include alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), corticotropin-like intermediate peptide (CLIP), and β-endorphin. β-endorphin is a peptide hormone composed of 31 amino acids and functions as part of the body’s natural pain and stress regulation system. The amino acid sequence of equine β-endorphin is very similar to that found in humans, differing by only three amino acids. Because β-endorphin is also derived from POMC and secreted by melanotropes, researchers have suggested it may play an important role in the development and progression of PPID.

Traditionally, β-endorphin concentrations in horses have been measured using radioimmunoassay (RIA). However, this technique involves the use of radioactive materials, which presents safety risks and has become less widely available in recent years. In human medicine, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are commonly used as a safer and more accessible alternative for hormone measurement. Researchers have therefore investigated whether commercially available human β-endorphin ELISA tests could be used reliably for equine samples.

A study conducted by Nathalie Fouché and colleagues at the University of Bern, Switzerland, aimed to validate a human β-endorphin ELISA kit for use in horses and to compare β-endorphin concentrations between horses diagnosed with PPID and healthy control horses. Validation of the test involved comparing standard curves generated using both synthetic equine β-endorphin and human β-endorphin. The results demonstrated full parallelism between the curves, indicating the test could accurately measure equine hormone levels.

The researchers also assessed the reliability of the assay by calculating intra-assay and inter-assay variation. These tests measure consistency within a single test plate and between multiple plates. The assay showed acceptable levels of variation, suggesting it is suitable for research use. Additionally, β-endorphin concentrations remained stable in plasma samples over a 24-hour period regardless of centrifugation timing, storage temperature, or storage duration, which supports the practicality of sample handling.

The pilot study compared five horses diagnosed with PPID to twenty healthy aged control horses. The findings revealed significantly higher β-endorphin concentrations in horses with PPID, with median concentrations of 506 pg/mL compared to 35 pg/mL in healthy horses. These results suggest that β-endorphin may be elevated in horses with PPID and could potentially provide additional diagnostic or pathophysiological information alongside ACTH testing.

Overall, this research highlights the possible importance of β-endorphin in understanding PPID and suggests that ELISA-based testing may provide a safer and more accessible method for future investigation. Further studies with larger sample sizes are required to confirm the diagnostic value of β-endorphin in horses with PPID.

For more details, see: 

N. Fouché, J. Howard, V. Gerber, P. Billmann, M. Farinha do Sul, G. Christen, R. Bruckmaier, C. Philipona, N. Besuchet Schmutz, J. Gross,

Pilot study of β-endorphin concentrations in horses with pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction using a newly validated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay,

Domestic Animal Endocrinology (2026) vol 95,106982

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.domaniend.2025.106982

Gastrointestinal parasites in Slovak horses

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Gastrointestinal parasitism remains a significant health concern in equine populations worldwide. Horses commonly host a wide range of intestinal helminths (parasitic worms), some of which can cause serious disease, reduced performance, and compromised welfare.

In recent years, growing resistance to anthelmintic (deworming) medications has become a major challenge for effective parasite control. This resistance has largely developed due to management practices such as frequent blanket deworming, incorrect dosing, and repeated use of the same drug classes. As a result, current parasite control strategies are shifting toward evidence-based approaches that rely on monitoring infection levels and targeting treatment appropriately.

Slovakia has a well-established horse breeding industry, with over 22,500 horses representing approximately 40 breeds.

To support improved management strategies, recent research conducted by Kuzmina and colleagues aimed to evaluate the distribution and prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in horses in eastern Slovakia, while also examining management factors that may influence infection levels.

The study involved analysis of 392 faecal samples collected from horses across 24 farms, representing a range of ages, breeds, and management systems. Coprological diagnostic techniques were used to identify parasite eggs. The McMaster method, with a sensitivity of 50 eggs per gram (EPG), was employed to detect nematode infections, while a double-centrifugation sedimentation-flotation method was used to identify tapeworm (Anoplocephala spp.) eggs. Additional information regarding horse age, breed, stocking density, and parasite control practices was collected to allow assessment of risk factors associated with infection.

Results indicated that strongylid nematodes were the most prevalent parasites identified, with 65.6% of horses testing positive. Egg counts ranged widely from 50 to 2800 EPG, demonstrating substantial variation in parasite burdens between individual animals. Notably, approximately 29.8% of horses were responsible for 80% of the total strongylid egg output, supporting previous evidence that parasite burdens are typically unevenly distributed within equine populations. This finding reinforces the principle behind targeted selective treatment, where only horses with higher egg counts are treated to reduce drug resistance and maintain refugia (untreated parasite populations).

Parascaris spp., which primarily affect younger horses, were detected in 4.5% of samples. Tapeworm infections caused by Anoplocephala spp. were relatively uncommon, being detected in only 0.3% of horses, and no additional helminth species were identified. These results confirm that strongylids and Parascaris spp. remain the dominant equine gastrointestinal parasites in Slovakia.

Statistical analysis revealed that horse age and stocking density were significant predictors of strongylid infection levels. Younger horses and animals kept at higher stocking densities were more likely to exhibit higher parasite burdens. In contrast, infection with Parascaris spp. was influenced solely by horse age, with younger horses demonstrating greater susceptibility due to their developing immune systems.

Overall, this study provides valuable insight into the current epidemiology of equine gastrointestinal parasites in Slovakia. The findings highlight the importance of regular faecal egg count monitoring and demonstrate that parasite burdens vary significantly between individuals. Incorporating targeted selective treatment strategies, alongside improved pasture management and reduced stocking density, may help slow the progression of anthelmintic resistance.

 

For more details, see:

Tetiana A. Kuzmina, Alžbeta Königová, Ludmila Burcáková, Yaroslav Syrota, Michal Babják, Marián Várady,

Gastrointestinal parasite occurrence in Slovak horses and factors affecting Strongylidae and Parascaris spp. egg shedding,

Veterinary Parasitology: Regional Studies and Reports,(2025)  Vol 64, 101328,

ISSN 2405-9390,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vprsr.2025.101328

Seasonal and breed differences in resting ACTH

Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), commonly referred to as equine Cushing’s
disease, is a common endocrine disorder primarily affecting older equids. Current estimates suggest that approximately 25% of horses and ponies aged 15 years and older may be affected.

The condition arises from degeneration of dopaminergic neurons within the hypothalamus, leading to loss of regulatory control over the pars intermedia region of the pituitary gland. As a result, excessive production of several hormones, including adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), occurs. Although PPID is progressive and currently incurable, early diagnosis and appropriate management can significantly slow disease progression and improve equine welfare.

Clinical signs of PPID are variable and may develop gradually. Common indicators include hypertrichosis (abnormal or excessive hair growth), delayed or incomplete shedding of the winter coat, lethargy, weight loss, and metabolic disturbances. One of the most serious associated complications is laminitis, which can severely compromise quality of life and may become life-threatening. Due to the variable presentation of clinical signs, diagnostic testing is frequently required to support clinical suspicion.

Measurement of baseline plasma ACTH concentration is widely used as a primary diagnostic tool for PPID. However, interpretation of ACTH values is complex, as concentrations are influenced by several factors, particularly seasonal variation. In the Northern Hemisphere, resting ACTH levels typically rise during late summer and early autumn, approximately between August and October. Understanding these physiological fluctuations is essential to avoid misinterpretation of results and potential overdiagnosis.

Breed-related differences in ACTH concentrations have also been documented. An Australian study identified that pony breeds, particularly Shetland ponies, displayed significantly higher ACTH concentrations during autumn when compared with Thoroughbred horses. These findings suggest that species, breed type, and possibly body size may influence endocrine responses and should be considered during diagnostic evaluation.

Further research has expanded understanding of ACTH variation across different equid species. A study conducted by Goodrich and colleagues, involving researchers from Cornell University, the University of California, Davis, and private veterinary practice, investigated baseline ACTH concentrations in donkeys and horse–donkey hybrids across several regions of the United States. The study aimed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of seasonal ACTH variation in healthy equids, as previous research had been limited by small sample sizes and restricted geographic representation.

The study evaluated 19 standard donkeys, 14 miniature donkeys, and 28 hybrids, with animals located in California, Massachusetts, New York, and Texas. Blood samples were collected twice monthly from June to November 2019 and monthly from December 2019 to May 2020. Results demonstrated a clear seasonal rise in ACTH concentrations across all groups, with levels increasing from mid-August and peaking in late September. Mean ACTH concentrations during peak periods reached approximately 109.6 pg/mL in standard donkeys, 134.6 pg/mL in miniature donkeys, and 100.8 pg/mL in hybrids.

Notably, hybrids consistently exhibited lower ACTH concentrations compared to donkeys throughout the year. During the seasonal peak, ACTH levels in hybrids were 23% lower than in standard donkeys and 51% lower than in miniature donkeys. Similar differences persisted during non-peak periods, with hybrids showing reductions of approximately 30% compared to both donkey groups. These findings highlight important species-related differences that may influence diagnostic interpretation.

Overall, research demonstrates that accurate diagnosis of PPID requires careful consideration of seasonal variation, species differences, and breed predisposition alongside clinical assessment. Improved understanding of normal ACTH fluctuations in healthy equids enhances diagnostic accuracy and supports more effective management of this common and welfare-significant endocrine disorder.

 

For more details, see:

Goodrich, Erin L., Sebastián Gonzalo Llanos-Soto, Renata Ivanek, Toby Pinn-Woodcock, Elisha Frye, Amy Wells, Stephen R. Purdy, Emily Berryhill, and Ned J. Place.

Both Season and Equid Type Affect Endogenous Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Concentrations in Healthy Donkeys, Mules and Hinnies in the United States

 Animals (2026) 16, no. 2: 290.

https://doi.org/10.3390/ani160202902

AI-based system for real-time detection of whip sounds in horse racing

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Researchers at the University of Tsukuba have developed an artificial intelligence–based system capable of
automatically detecting whip sounds in horse racing, offering a potential alternative to the labour-intensive manual review processes currently used to enforce whip regulations.

In many racing jurisdictions, the use of whips is strictly regulated to protect animal welfare and ensure fair competition. Violations, such as excessive force or exceeding the allowed number of strikes, are typically identified by race stewards through careful frame-by-frame analysis of video footage. While effective, this approach is time-consuming, costly, and impractical for real-time enforcement during live races. The new study addresses these limitations by focusing on the acoustic signature of whip strikes rather than visual evidence.

Whip sounds are highly impulsive and contain very high-frequency components that are difficult to capture using conventional audio recording systems. To overcome this challenge, the research team recorded race audio at an unusually high sampling rate of 192 kHz, enabling precise capture of both the high-frequency content and the fine temporal structure of whip strikes. Audio data were collected from 24 official horse races held in Japan, yielding a dataset that included 620 carefully annotated whip strike events.

Using this dataset, the researchers built an automated system to detect whip sounds in race audio. The system was trained to recognise the acoustic patterns of whip strikes and how these sounds change over time. Several model designs were tested to find the most effective way to detect the very short, high-pitched nature of whip sounds.

One major challenge was that whip strikes occurred far less often than background noise such as crowd sounds and hoofbeats. To prevent the system from being biased toward this background noise, the researchers reduced the amount of non-whip audio used during training. The best-performing model correctly identified whip strikes with an accuracy score of 69.8%.

Beyond accuracy, the study also examined processing speed. Offline evaluations revealed that the best-performing model could analyse audio faster than real time under many conditions, suggesting that live race monitoring is technically feasible. 

The research provides the first clear confirmation that whip sounds contain critical very high-frequency elements, underscoring the importance of high-sampling-rate audio for this application. At the same time, the authors acknowledge remaining challenges, including environmental noise in race settings and the relatively small size of the current dataset, which can affect robustness and generalization.

Overall, the study establishes an approach for automatic whip strike detection using sound event detection and deep learning. With further data collection and improvements in noise robustness, the system could support real-time rule enforcement, promote fairer competition, and contribute to improved animal welfare in horse racing.

 

For more details, see:

Aoi Taguchi, Yuki Fujita, Keiichi Zempo,

Whip strike detection using high-sampling-rate audio by evaluating convolutional recurrent neural network configurations and class imbalance strategies,

Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence (2026) Vol 164, Part A,113272,

ISSN 0952-1976,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engappai.2025.113272